Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care
Volume 36, Issue 8 , Pages 282-305 , September 2006

What the Primary Care Pediatrician Should Know about Syndromes Associated with Exposures to Mycotoxins

References 

  1. Hjelmroos M . Relationship between airborne fungal spore presence and weather variables (Cladosporium and Alternaria) . Grana . 1993;32:40–47
  2. Goldfarb A . The significance of mold spore allergy in childhood respiratory disease . Ann Allergy . 1968;26:321–327
  3. Miller JD . Fungi as contaminants in indoor air . Atmospheric Environ . 1992;26:2163–2172
  4. Graveson S , Frisvad JC , Samson RA . Microfungi . Copenhagen, Denmark: Munksgaard Publishing; 1994;
  5. Kapyla M . Frame fungi on insulated windows . J Allergy . 1985;40:558–564
  6. Miller JD , Laflamme AM , Sobol Y , Lafontaine P , Greenhaigh R . Fungi and fungal products in some Canadian houses . Int Biodeterioration . 1988;24:103–120
  7. Pasanen P , Pasanen AL , Jantunin M . Water condensation promotes fungal growth in ventilation ducts . Indoor Air . 1993;3:106–112
  8. Solomon WR . Fungus aerosols arising from cold-mist vaporizers . J Allergy . 1974;54:222–228
  9. Kozak PP , Gallup J , Cummins LH , Gillman SA . Currently available methods for home mold surveys: II. Examples of problem homes studied . Ann Allergy . 1980;45:167–176
  10. Fergusson RJ , Milne LJ , Crompton GK . Penicillium allergic alveolitis (faulty installation of central heating) . Thorax . 1984;39:294–298
  11. American Academy of Pediatrics . Committee on Environmental Health. Toxic effects of indoor molds . Pediatrics . 1998;101:712–714
  12. Burge HA . Toxigenic potential of indoor microbial aerosols . In:  Sandu SS ,  DeMarini DM , et al. editor. Short-term bioassays in the analysis of complex environmental mixtures . New York: Plenum Press; 1987;
  13. Jarvis BB . Mycotoxins and indoor air quality . In:  Morey PM ,  Feeley JC ,  Otten JA editor. Biological contaminants in indoor environments . Philadelphia (PA): American Society for Testing and Materials; 1990;
  14. Hendry LM , Cole EC . A review of mycotoxins in indoor air . J Toxicol Environ Health . 1993;38:183–198
  15. Kemppainen BW , Riley RT , Pace JG . Skin absorption as a route of exposure for aflatoxins and trichothecenes . J Toxicol/Toxin Rev . 1988;7:95–120
  16. Etzel RA . Mycotoxins . J Am Med Assoc . 2002;287:425–427
  17. Pitt JI . Toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins . Br Med Bull . 2000;56:184–192
  18. Bhat RV , Beedu SR , Ramakrishna Y , Munshi KL . Outbreak of trichothecene mycotoxicosis associated with consumption of mould-damaged wheat products in Kashmir Valley, India . Lancet . 1989;1(8628):35–37
  19. American Medical Association (AMA), American Nurses Association—American Nurses Foundation, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Food Safety and Inspection Service. Diagnosis and Management of Foodborne Illnesses. A Primer for Physicians and Other Health Care Professionals. Chicago (IL): AMA; February 2004.
  20. Shiefer HB , Beasley VR . Effects on the digestive system and energy metabolism . In:  Beasley VR editors. Trichothecene mycotoxicosis (pathophysiologic effects) . Vol 2: Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press; 1989;p. 61–89
  21. Kuiper-Goodman T. Potential human health hazards and regulatory aspects. In: Scott PM, Trenholm HL, Sutton MD, editors. Mycotoxins, a Canadian perspective. Ottawa: National Research Council; NRCC no. 22848, p. 103-11.
  22. Luo XY . Outbreaks of moldy cereal poisonings in China . In: Toxicology Forum and the Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine. Issues in Food Safety . Washington, DC: Toxicology Forum; 1988;p. 56–63
  23. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . Outbreaks of gastrointestinal illness of unknown etiology associated with eating burritos—United States, October 1997-October 1998 . MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep . 1999;48:210–213
  24. Lye MS , Ghazali AA , Mohan J , Alwin N , Nair RC . An outbreak of acute hepatic encephalopathy due to severe aflatoxicosis in Malaysia . Am J Trop Med Hyg . 1995;53:68–72
  25. Krishnamachari KA , Bhat RV , Nagarajan V , Tilak TB . Hepatitis due to aflatoxicosis An outbreak in Western India . Lancet . 1975;1(7915):1061–1062
  26. Ngindu A , Johnson BK , Kenya PR , Ngira JA , Ocheng DM , Nandwa H , et al.   Outbreak of acute hepatitis by aflatoxin poisoning in Kenya . Lancet . 1982;1(8285):1346–1348
  27. Chao TC , Maxwell SM , Wong SY . An outbreak of aflatoxicosis and boric acid poisoning in Malaysia (a clinicopathological study) . J Pathol . 1991;164:225–233
  28. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . Outbreak of aflatoxin poisoning—Eastern and Central Provinces, Kenya, January-July 2004 . MMWR Morb Mort Wkly Rep . 2004;53:790–793
  29. Aziz-Baumgartner E , Lindblade K , Gieseker K , Rogers HS , Kiesak S , Njapau H , et al.   Case-control study of an acute aflatoxicosis outbreak, Kenya, 2004 . Environ Health Perspect . 2005;113:1779–1783
  30. Lewis L , Onsongo M , Njapau H , Shurz-Rogers H , Luber G , Kieszak S , et al.   Aflatoxin contamination of commercial maize products during an outbreak of acute aflatoxicosis in eastern and central Kenya . Environ Health Perspect . 2005;113:1763–1767
  31. Campbell CT . Mycotoxins . In:  Wynder EL ,  Leveille GA ,  Weisburger JH ,  Livingston GE editor. Environmental aspects of cancer (the role of macro and micro components of foods) . Westport (CT): Food and Nutrition Press; 1983;p. 187–197
  32. Concon JM . Food Toxicology (Contaminants and Additives, Part B) . New York: Marcel Dekker; 1988;
  33. World Health Organization . Fumonisin B1. Environmental Health Criteria, No. 219 . Geneva: World Health Organization; 2000;
  34. World Health Organization . Safety Evaluation of certain mycotoxins in food. Food and Nutrition paper 74 . Geneva: World Health Organization; 2001;
  35. Bhat RV , Prathaphumar HS , Rao PA , Rao VS . A foodborne disease outbreak due to the consumption of moldy sorghum and maize containing fumonisin mycotoxins . Clin Toxicol . 1997;35:249–255
  36. Shetty PH , Bhat RV . Natural occurrence of fumonisin B1 and its co-occurrence with aflatoxin B1 in Indian sorghum, maize and poultry feeds . J Agric Food Chem . 1997;45:2170–2173
  37. Vasanthi S , Bhat RV . Mycotoxins in foods—occurrence, health and economic significance and food control measurements . Indian J Med Res . 1998;108:212–214
  38. Prathapkumar SH , Rao VS , Paramkishan RJ , Bhat RV . Disease outbreak in laying hens arising from the consumption of fumonisin-contaminated food . Br Poult Sci . 1997;38:475–479
  39. Drush S , Ragab W . Mycotoxins in fruits, fruit juices, and dried fruits . J Food Protection . 2003;66:1514–1527
  40. Codex Alimentarius. Maximum level for patulin in apple juice and apple juice ingredients and other beverages. 2003. Available at: http:///www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards/405/CXC_050e.pdf
  41. de Rosnay CD , Martin-Dupont C , Jensen R . An antibiotic, mycosin C . J Med Bordeaux Sud-Ouest . 1952;129:189
  42. Walker K , Wiesner BP . Patulin and clavicin . Lancet . 1944;246:294
  43. Bondy GS , Pestka JJ . Immunodulation by fungal toxins . J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev . 2000;2:109–143
  44. Easterling DR , Meehl GA , Parmesan C , Changnon SA , Karl TR , Mearns LO . Climate extremes (observations, modeling, and impacts) . Science . 2000;289:2068–2074
  45. Greenough G , McGeehin M , Bernard SM , Trtanj J , Riad J , Engelberg D . The potential impacts of climate variability and change on health impacts of extreme weather events in the United States . Environ Health Perspect . 2001;109(Suppl 2):191–198
  46. U.S. Food and Drug Administration . Guidance for Industry on Fumonisin Levels in Human Foods and Animal Feeds. Dockets Management Branch (HFA-305) . Rockville, MD: U.S. Food and Drug Administration; 2000;
  47. Mayer CF . Endemic panmyelotoxicosis in the Russian grain belt. Part one: the clinical aspects of alimentary toxic aleukia (ATA): a comprehensive review . Military Surg . 1953;113:173–189
  48. Drobotko VG . Stachybotryotoxicosis, a new disease of horses and humans . Am Rev Soviet Med . 1945;2:238–242
  49. Forgacs J . Stachybotryotoxicosis . In:  Kadis S ,  Ciegler A ,  Ajl S editor. Microbial toxins. Vol. III . New York: Academic Press; 1972;
  50. Hintikka E-L . Stachybotryotoxicosis as a veterinary problem . In:  Rodericks JV ,  Hesseltine CW ,  Mehlman MA editor. Mycotoxins in human and animal health . Park Forest (IL): Pathtox Publishers; 1977;p. 277–284
  51. Joffe AZ . Foodborne diseases (alimentary toxic aleukia) . In:  Rechcigle M editors. Handbook of foodborne disease of biological origin . Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press; 1983;p. 351–495
  52. Schneider DJ , Marasas WFO , Dale Kuys JC , Kriek NPJ , Van Schalkwyk GC . A field outbreak of suspected stachybotryotoxicosis in sheep . J S Afr Vet Assoc . 1979;50:73
  53. Szathmary CI . Toxicoses and natural occurrence in Hungary . In:  Ueno Y editors. Trichothecenes—chemical, biological and toxicological aspects . Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1983;
  54. Munoz FM , Demmler GJ , Travis WR , Ogden AK , Rossman SN , Rinaldi MG . Trichoderma longibrachiatum infection in a pediatric patient with aplastic anemia . J Clin Microbiol . 1997;35:499–503
  55. Croft WA , Jarvis BB , Yatawara CS . Airborne outbreak of trichothecene toxicosis . Atmos Environ . 1986;20:549–552
  56. Dietert RR , Etzel RA , Chen D , Halonen M , Holladay SD , Jarabek AM , et al.   Workshop to identify critical windows of exposure for children’s health (immune and respiratory systems work group summary) . Environ Health Perspect . 2000;108(Suppl 3):483–490
  57. Etzel RA , Montana E , Sorenson WG , Kullman GJ , Allan TM , Dearborn DG . Acute pulmonary hemorrhage in infants associated with exposure to. Stachybotrys atra and other fungi . Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med . 1998;152:757–762
  58. Dearborn DG , Yike I , Sorenson WG , Miller MJ , Etzel RA . Overview of investigations into pulmonary hemorrhage among infants in Cleveland, Ohio . Environ Health Perspect . 1999;107(Suppl 3):495–499
  59. Knapp JF , Michael JG , Hegenbarth MA , Jones PE , Black PG . Case records of the Children’s Mercy Hospital, Case 02-1999 (a 1-month-old infant with respiratory distress and shock) . Pediatr Emerg Care . 1999;15:288–293
  60. Flappan SM , Portnoy J , Jones P , Barnes C . Infant pulmonary hemorrhage in a suburban home with water damage and mold (Stachybotrys atra) . Environ Health Perspect . 1999;107:927–930
  61. Tripi PA , Modlin S , Sorenson WG , Dearborn DG . Acute pulmonary haemorrhage in an infant during induction of general anaesthesia . Pediatr Anaesth . 2000;10:92–94
  62. Weiss A , Chidekel AS . Acute pulmonary hemorrhage in a Delaware infant after exposure to Stachybotrys atra . Del Med J . 2002;74:363–368
  63. Novotny WE , Dixit A . Pulmonary hemorrhage in an infant following 2 weeks of fungal exposure . Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med . 2000;154:271–275
  64. Habiba A . Acute idiopathic pulmonary haemorrhage in infancy (case report and review of the literature) . J Paediatr Child Health . 2005;41:532–533
  65. Creasia DA , Lambert RJ . Acute respiratory tract toxicity of the trichothecene mycotoxin, T-2 toxin . In:  Beasley VR editors. Trichothecene mycotoxicosis (pathophysiologic effects) . Vol 1: Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press; 1989;p. 161–170
  66. Jarvis BB , Sorenson WG , Hintikka E-L , Nikulin M , Zhou Y , Jiang J , et al.   Study of toxin production by isolates of Stachybotrys chartarum and Memnoniella echinata isolated during a study of pulmonary hemosiderosis in infants . Appl Environ Microbiol . 1998;64:3620–3625
  67. Yike I, Rand T, Dearborn D. Proteases from the spores of toxigenic fungus Stachybotrys chartarum. Proceedings of the American Lung Association/American Thoracic Society, 2002, Atlanta, Georgia.
  68. Yike I , Miller MJ , Sorenson WG , Walenga R , Tomashefski JF , Dearborn DG . Infant animal model of pulmonary mycotoxicosis induced by Stachybotrys chartarum . Mycopathologia . 2001;154:139–152
  69. Nikulin M , Reijula K , Jarvis BB , Veijalainen P , Hintikka EL . Effects of intranasal exposure to spores of Stachybotrys atra in mice . Fundam Appl Toxicol . 1997;35:182–188
  70. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . Update (pulmonary hemorrhage/hemosiderosis among infants—Cleveland, Ohio, 1993-1996) . MMWR Morb Mort Wkly Rep . 2000;49:180–184
  71. Etzel RA . Stachybotrys . Curr Opin Pediatr . 2003;15:103–106
  72. Miller JD , Rand TG , Jarvis BB . Stachybotrys chartarum (cause of human disease or media darling?) . Med Mycol . 2003;41:271–291
  73. Sidman JD , Wheeler WB , Cabalka AK , Soumekh B , Brown CA , Wright GB . Management of acute pulmonary hemorrhage in children . Laryngoscope . 2001;111:33–35
  74. Sherman JM , Winnie G , Thomassen MJ , Abdul-Karim FW , Boat TF . Time course of hemosiderin production and clearance by human pulmonary macrophages . Chest . 1984;86:409–411
  75. Dearborn DG , Smith PG , Dahms BB , Allan TM , Sorenson WG , Montana E , et al.   Clinical profile of 30 infants with acute pulmonary hemorrhage in Cleveland . Pediatrics . 2002;110:627–637
  76. Rego SJ , Subba Rao SD , Pandit N , Kumar KR . Idiopathic primary pulmonary hemosiderosis . Indian Pediatr . 1999;36:393–398
  77. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Environmental Health . Pediatric Environmental Health . In:  Etzel RA editors. 2nd Edition. Elk Grove Village (IL): American Academy of Pediatrics; 2003;
  78. Storey E, Dangman KH, Schenck P, DeBernardo RL, Yang CS, Bracker A, et al: Guidance for Clinicians on the Recognition and Management of Health Effects Related to Mold Exposure and Moisture Indoors. Center for Indoor Environments and Health, University of Connecticut Health Center, 2004. Available at: http://oehc.uchc.edu/clinser/MOLD%20GUIDE.pdf
  79. Elidemir O , Colasurdo GN , Rossmann SN , Fan LL . Isolation of Stachybotrys from the lung of a child with pulmonary hemosiderosis . Pediatrics . 1999;104:964–966
  80. Heiner DC , Sears JW , Kniker WT . Multiple precipitins to cow’s milk in chronic respiratory disease. A syndrome including poor growth, gastrointestinal symptoms, evidence of allergy, iron deficiency anemia and pulmonary hemosiderosis . Am J Dis Child . 1962;103:634–654
  81. Platt SD , Martin CJ , Hunt SM , Lewis CW . Damp housing, mould growth, and symptomatic health state . BMJ . 1989;298:1673–1678
  82. Dhillon M . Current status of mold immunotherapy . Ann Allergy . 1991;66:385–392
  83. Flannigan B , McCabe EM , McGarry F . Allergic and toxigenic micro-organisms in houses . Soc Appl Bacteriol Symp Ser . 1991;20: 61S–73
  84. Wilson CE . Sudden infant death syndrome and Canadian aboriginals (bacteria and infections) . FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol . 1999;25:221–226
  85. Etzel RA . Indoor air pollutants in homes and schools . Pediatr Clin North Am . 2001;48:1153–1165
  86. Van Rensburg SJ . Role of epidemiology in the elucidation of mycotoxin health risks . In:  Rodericks JV ,  Hesseltine CW ,  Mehlman MA editor. Mycotoxicosis in Human and Animal Health . Park Forest South (IL): Pathtox; 1977;p. 699–711
  87. Wogan GN , Newberne PM . Dose-response characteristics of aflatoxin B1 carcinogenesis in the rat . Cancer Res . 1967;27:2370–2376
  88. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) . Aflatoxins . In: IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans . Vol 56: Lyon, France: IARC; 1993;p. 245–395
  89. Bosch FX , Ribes J , Cleries R , Diaz M . Epidemiology of hepatocellular carcinoma . Clin Liver Dis . 2005;9:191–211
  90. Lunn RM , Zhang Y-J , Wang L-Y , Chen C-J , Lee P-H , Le C-S , et al.   P53 mutations, chronic hepatitis B virus infection, and aflatoxin exposure in hepatocellular carcinoma in Taiwan . Cancer Res . 1997;57:3471–3477
  91. Qin G , Su J , Ning Y , Duan D , Lotlikar PD . P53 protein expression in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma from the high incidence area of Guangxi, Southern China . Cancer Lett . 1997;121:303–310
  92. Sheu JC . Molecular mechanism of hepatocarcinogenesis . Gastroenterol Hepatol . 1997;12:9–10
  93. Yang M , Zhou H , Kong RYC , Fong WF , Ren L-Q , Liao X-H , et al.   Mutations at codon 249 of p53 gene in human hepatocellular carcinoma from Tongan, China . Mutat Res . 1997;381:25–29
  94. Shimizu Y , Zhu J-J , Han F , Ishikawa T , Oda H . Different frequencies of p53 codon-249 hot-spot mutations in hepatocellular carcinomas in Jiang-Su Province of China . Int J Cancer . 1999;82:187–190
  95. Rashid A , Wang JS , Qian GS , Lu BX , Hamilton SR , Groopman JD . Genetic alterations in hepatocellular carcinomas (association between loss of chromosome 4q and p53 gene mutations) . Br J Cancer . 1999;80:59–66
  96. Katiyar S , Dash BC , Thakur YX , Guptain RC , Sarin SK , Das BC . P53 tumor suppressor gene mutations in hepatocellular carcinoma patients in India . Cancer . 2000;88:1565–1573
  97. Boix-Ferrero J , Pellin A , Blesa R , Adrados M , Llombart-Bosch A . Absence of p53 gene mutations in hepatocarcinomas from Mediterranean area of Spain (a study of 129 archival tumor samples) . Virchows Arch . 1999;434:497–501
  98. Lanier AP, Holck P, Day GE, Key C. Childhood cancer among Alaska Natives. Pediatr 2003;112:e396-e403. Available at: http://www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/112/5/e396.
  99. Chen J-C , Chang M-L , Lin J-N , Lai H-S , Chen C-C , Chen W-J , et al.   Comparison of childhood hepatic malignancies in a hepatitis B hyper-endemic area . World J Gastroenterol . 2005;11:5289–5294
  100. Chang M-H , Chen C-J , Lai M-S , Hsu H-M , Wu T-C , Kong M-S , et al.   Universal hepatitis B vaccination in Taiwan and the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in children . N Engl J Med . 1997;336:1855–1859
  101. Wang JS , Shen X , He X , Zhu YR , Zhang BC , Wang JB , et al.   Protective alterations in phase 1 and 2 metabolism of aflatoxin B1 by oltipraz in residents of Qidong, People’s Republic of China . J Natl Cancer Inst . 1999;91:347–354
  102. Jackson PE , Groopman JD . Aflatoxin and liver cancer . Baillieres Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol . 1999;13:545–555
  103. Ueno Y , Nagata S , Tsutsumi T , Hasega A , Watanabe F , Park H , et al.   Detection of microcystins, a blue-green algal hepatotoxin, in drinking water sampled in Haimen and Fusai, endemic areas of primary liver cancer in China, by highly sensitive immunoassay . Carcinogenesis . 1996;17:1317–1321
  104. Ueno Y , Iijima K , Wang SD , Sugiura Y , Sekijima M , Tanaka T , et al.   Fumonisins as a possible contributory risk factor for primary liver cancer (a 3-year study of corn harvested in Haimen, China by HPLC and ELISA) . Food Chem Toxicol . 1997;35:1143–1150
  105. Jaskiewicz K , Marasas WFO , Van der Walt FE . Oesophageal and other main cancer patterns in four districts of Transkei, 1981-1984 . S Afr Med J . 1987;72:27–30
  106. Makaula NA , Marasas WFO , Venter FS , Badenhorst CJ , Bradshaw D , Swanevelder S . Oesophageal and other cancer patterns in four selected districts of Transkei, Southern Africa (1985-1990) . Afr J Health Sci . 1996;3:11–15
  107. Sydenham EW , Thiel PG , Marasas WFO , Shepard GS , Van Schalkwyk DJ , Koch KR . Natural occurrence of some Fusarium mycotoxins in corn from low and high esophageal cancer prevalence in areas of the Transkei, southern Africa . J Agric Food Chem . 1990;38:1900–1903
  108. Van Rensburg SJ , van Schalkwyk GC , van Schalkwyk DJ . Primary liver cancer and aflatoxin intake in Transkei . J Environ Pathol Toxicol . 1990;10:11–16
  109. Rheeder JP , Marasas WFO , Thiel PG , Sydenham EW , Shephard GS , van Schalkwyk DJ . Fusarium moniliforme and fumonisins in corn in relation to human esophageal cancer in Transkei . Phytopathology . 1992;82:353–357
  110. Van Rensburg SJ , Bradshaw ES , Bradshaw D , Rose EF . Oesophageal cancer in Zulu men, South Africa (a case control study) . Br J Cancer . 1985;51:399–405
  111. van Helden PD , Beyers AD , Bester AJ , Jaskiewicz K . Esophageal cancer (vitamin and lipotrope deficiences in an at-risk South African population) . Nutr Cancer . 1987;10:247–255
  112. Jaskiewicz K , Van Rensburg SJ , Venter FS , Marais CW . Oesophageal cytological abnormalities in Transkei and possible nutritional influences . S Afr Med J . 1987;(Suppl):3–4
  113. Jaskiewicz K , Marasas WFO , Lazarus C , Beyers AD , Van Helden PD . Association of oesophageal cytological abnormalities with vitamin and lipotrope deficiencies in populations at risk for esophageal cancer . Anticancer Res . 1988;8:711–716
  114. Jaskiewicz K , Marasas WFO , Rossouw JE , Van Niekerk FE , Heine EWP . Selenium and other mineral elements in populations at risk for esophageal cancer . Cancer . 1988;62:2635–2639
  115. Marasas WFO . Discovery and occurrence of the fumonisins (a historical perspective) . Environ Health Perspect . 2001;109(Suppl 2):239–243
  116. Ross PF , Rice LG , Reagor JC , Osweiler GD , Wilson TM , Nelson HA , et al.   Fumonisin B1 concentrations in feeds from 45 confirmed equine leukoencephalomalacia cases . J Vet Diagn Invest . 1991;3:238–241
  117. Ross PF , Nelson PE , Richard JL , Osweiler GD , Rice LG , Plattner RD , et al.   Production of fumonisins by Fusarium moniliforme and Fusarium proliferatum isolates associated with equine leukoencephalomalacia and a pulmonary edema syndrome in swine . Appl Environ Microbiol . 1990;56:3225–3226
  118. Bane DP , Neumann EJ , Hall WF , Harlan KS , Slife RL . Relationship between fumonisin contamination of feed and mystery swine disease. A case-control study . Mycopathologia . 1992;117:121–124
  119. Marasas WFO , Wehner FC , Van Rensburg SJ , Van Schalkwyk DJ . Mycoflora of corn produced in human esophageal cancer areas in Transkei, Southern Africa . Phytopathology . 1981;71:792–796
  120. Gelderblom WCA , Thiel PG , Marasas WFO , Van der Merwe KJ . Natural occurrence of fusarin C, a mutagen produced by Fusarium moniliforme, on corn . J Agric Food Chem . 1984;32:1064–1067
  121. Marasas WFO , Jaskiewicz K , Venter FS , Van Schalkwyk DJ . Fusarium moniliforme contamination of maize in oesophageal cancer areas in Transkei . S Afr Med J . 1988;74:110–114
  122. Bever RJ , Couch LH , Suterland JB , Williams AJ , Beger RD , Churchwell JB , et al.   DNA adduct formation by Fusarium culture extracts (lack of role of fusarin C) . Chem Biol Interact . 2000;128:141–157
  123. Rose EF . Esophageal cancer in the Transkei . J Natl Cancer Inst . 1973;51:7–16
  124. Sammon AM . A case-control study of diet and social factors in cancer of the oesophagus in Transkei . Cancer . 1992;69:860–865
  125. Yang CS . Research on esophageal cancer in China (a review) . Cancer Res . 1980;40:2633–2644
  126. Zhen YZ . Isolation and culture of fungi from the cereals in five high and three low incidence counties of esophageal cancer in Henan Province (China) . Zhonghua Zhonglia Zashi . 1984;6:27–29
  127. Luo Y , Yoshizawa T , Katayama T . Comparative study on the natural occurrence of low-risk areas from human esophageal cancer in China . Appl Environ Microbiol . 1990;56:3723–3726
  128. Chu FS , Li GY . Simultaneous occurrence of fumonisin B1 and other mycotoxins in moldy corn collected from the People’s Republic of China in regions with high incidences of esophageal cancer . Appl Environ Micribiol . 1994;60:847–852
  129. Yoshizawa T , Yamashita A , Luo Y . Fumonisin occurrence in corn from high- and low-risk areas for human esophageal cancer in China . Appl Environ Microbiol . 1994;60:1626–1629
  130. Gao H-P , Yoshizawa T . Further study on Fusarium mycotoxins in corn and wheat from a high-risk area for human esophageal cancer in China . Mycotoxins . 1997;45:51–55
  131. Zhang H , Nagashima H , Goto T . Natural occurrence of mycotoxins in corn, samples from high and low risk areas for human esophageal cancer in China . Mycotoxins . 1997;44:29–35
  132. Li M-X , Lu S , Ji C , Wang MY , Cheng SJ , Tian G . Formation of carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds in corn bread inoculated with fungi . Sci Sin . 1979;22:471–477
  133. Li M-X, Lu S-H, Ji C, Wang MY, Wang M, Cheng S, et al. Experimental studies on the carcinogenicity of fungus-contaminated food from Lixian county . In:  Gelboin HV , et al. editor. Genetic and Environmental Factors in Experimental and Human Cancer . Tokyo: Japan Scientific Society Press; 1980;p. 139–148
  134. Li M , Tain G , Lu S , Guoi S , Jin C , Wang Y . Forestomach carcinoma induced in rats by cornbread inoculated with Fusarium moniliforme . Zhonghua Zongliu Sazhi . 1982;4:241–244
  135. Li J-Y , Ershow AG , Chen Z-G , Wacholder S , Li G-Y , Blot WJ . A case-control study of cancer of the esophagus and gastric cardia in Linxian . Int J Cancer . 1989;43:755–761
  136. Kmet J , Mahboubi E . Esophageal cancer in the Caspian littoral of Iran (initial studies) . Science . 1972;175:846–853
  137. Hormozdiari H , Day NE , Aramesh B , Mahboubi E . Dietary factors and esophageal cancer in the Caspian littoral of Iran . Cancer Res . 1975;35:3493–3498
  138. Chen J , Mirocha CJ , Xie W , Hogge L , Olson D . Production of the mycotoxin FB1 by Alternaria alternata f.sp. lycopersici . Appl Environ Microbiol . 1992;58:3928–3931
  139. Bujari J , Ershad D . An investigation on corn-seed mycoflora . Iran J Plant Pathol . 1993;29:13–17
  140. Shephard GS , Marasas WFO , Leggott NL , Yazdanpanah H , Safavi N . Natural occurrence of fumonisins in corn in Iran . J Agric Food Chem . 2000;48:1860–1864
  141. Joint Iran/IARC Study Group . Esophageal cancer studies in the Caspian littoral of Iran Results of population studies—a prodrome . J Natl Cancer Inst . 1977;59:1127–1138
  142. Cook-Mozaffari PJ , Azordegan F , Day NE , Ressicaud A , Sabai C , Aramesch B . Oesophageal cancer studies in the Caspian littoral of Iran (results of a case-control study) . Br J Cancer . 1979;39:293–309
  143. O’Neil CH , Hodges GM , Riddle PN , Jordan PW , Newmans RH , Flood RJ , et al.   A fine silica contaminant of flour in the high oesophageal cancer area of northeast Iran . Int J Cancer . 1980;26:617–628
  144. Ghadirian P . Food habits of the people of the Caspian littoral of Iran in relation to esophageal cancer . Nutr Cancer . 1987;9:147–157
  145. Franceschi S , Bidoli E , Baron AE , La Vecchia C . Maize and risk of cancer of the oral cavity, pharynx and esophagus in northeastern Italy . J Natl Cancer Inst . 1980;82:1407–1411
  146. Logrieco A , Moretti A , Ritieni A , Bottalico A , Corda P . Occurrence and toxigenicity of Fusarium proliferatum from preharvest maize ear rot, and associated mycotoxin, in Italy . Plant Dis . 1995;79:727–731
  147. Rossi M , Ancona E , Mastrangelo G , Solimbergo D , Paruzzolo P , Assarini G , et al.   Epidemiologic findings in esophageal cancer in the Veneto region . Minerva Med . 1982;73:1531–1540
  148. Gatei DG , Odhaimbo PA , Orinda DAO , Muruka FJ , Wasunna A . Retrospective study of carcinoma of the esophagus in Kenya . Cancer Res . 1978;38:303–307
  149. Macdonald MV , Chapman R . The incidence of Fusarium moniliforme on maize from Central America, Africa, and Asia during 1992-1995 . Plant Pathol . 1996;46:112–125
  150. Kedera CJ , Plattner RD , Desjardins AE . Incidence of Fusarium spp. and levels of fumonisin B1 in maize in western Kenya . Appl Environ Microbiol . 1999;65:41–44
  151. Van der Westhuizen L , Brown NL , Marasas WFO , Swanevelder S , Shephard GS . Sphinganine/sphingosine ratio in plasma and urine as possible bimarker for fumonisins exposure in humans in rural areas of Africa . Food Chem Toxicol . 1999;37:1153–1158
  152. Bassett MT , Chokunonga E , Mauchaza B , Levy L , Ferlay J , Parkin DM . Cancer in the African population of Harare, Zimbabwe, 1990-1992 . Int J Cancer . 1995;63:29–36
  153. Sydenham EW , Shephard GS , Gelderblom WCA , Thiel PG , Manasas WFO . Fumonisins (their implications for human and animal health) . In:  Scudamore KA editors. Occurrence and significance of mycotoxins . London: Brunel University; 1993;p. 42–48
  154. Fraumeni JF , Blot WJ . Geographic variation in esophageal cancer mortality in the United States . J Chronic Dis . 1977;30:759–767
  155. O’Brien PH , Parker EF , Gregory HB . Epidemiology and treatment of carcinoma of the esophagus in South Carolina, a high risk area in the US . In:  Pfieffer CJ editors. Cancer of the esophagus . Vol. 1: Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press; 1982;p. 65–80
  156. Brown LM , Blot WJ , Schumann SH , Smith VM , Ershow AG , Marks RD , et al.   Environmental factors and high risk of esophageal cancer among men in coastal South Carolina . J Natl Cancer Inst . 1988;80:1120–1125
  157. Sydenham EW , Shephard GS , Theil PG , Marasas WFO . Fumonisin contamination of commercial corn-based human foodstuffs . J Agric Food Chem . 1991;39:2014–2018
  158. Instituto Nacional do Cancer. [Estimates of Cancer Metabolites in Brazil] , Rio de Janerio: Ministerio da Saude (in Portugese); 1989.
  159. Sydenham EW , Marasas WFO , Shephard GS , Thiel PG , Hirooka EY . Fumonisin concentrations in Brazilian feeds associated with field outbreaks of confirmed and suspected animal mycotoxicosis . J Agric Food Chem . 1992;40:994–997
  160. Hirooka EY , Yamaguchi MM , Aoyama S , Sugiura Y , Ueno Y . The natural occurrence of fumonisins in Brazilian corn kernels . Food Addit Contam . 1996;13:173–183
  161. Scaff RMC , Scussel V . Esophageal cancer in southern region of Brazil . Mycotoxins . 1999;(Suppl):226–230
  162. Scaff RMC , Scussel V . Esophageal cancer and its relationship to diet and cultural habits . In: X International Symposium on Mycotoxins and Phycotoxins . Guaruja, Brazil: Instituto Adolfo Lutz; 2000;p. 86
  163. Camargos SM , Valente-Soares LM , Sawazaki E , Bolonhezi D , Castro JL , Bortollento N . Fumonisins in corn cultivars grown during the 94/95 season in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil . In: X International Symposium on Mycotoxins and Phycotoxins . Guaruja, Brazil: Instituto Adolfo Lutz; 2000;p. 142; (abstract)
  164. Hermans G , Costa LLF , Scussel VM . Evaluation of fumonisin contamination of corn (Zea mays L.) produced at the western region of Santa Caterina . In: X International Symposium on Mycotoxins and Phycotoxins . Guaruja, Brazil: Instituto Adolfo Lutz; 2000;p. 147
  165. Machinski M , Valenta Soares LM . Fumonisins B1 and B2 in Brazilian corn-based food products . Food Addit Contam . 2000;17:875–879
  166. Victoria VC , Munoz N , Day NE , Barcelos LB , Peccin DA , Braga NM . Hot beverages and oesophageal cancer in southern Brazil (a case-control study) . Int J Cancer . 1987;39:710–716
  167. Dietz J , Pardo SH , Furtado D , Harzheim E , Furtado AD . Risk factors related to esophageal cancer in the Rio Grande do Sul . Rev Assoc Med Bras . 1998;44:269–272
  168. Van der Merwe KJ , Steyn PS , Fourie L . Mycotoxins. Part II. The constitution of ochratoxins A, B, and C, metabolites of Aspergillus ochraceus Wilh . J Chem Soc . 1965;7083–7088
  169. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). IARC Summary and Evaluation, Ochratoxin A. Volume 56, 1993. Available at: http://www.inchem.org/documents/iarc/vol56/13-ochra.html.
  170. Petkova-Bocharova T , Castegnaro M . Ochratoxin A contamination of cereals in an area of high incidence of Balkan endemic nephropathy in Bulgaria . Food Addit Contam . 1985;2:267–270
  171. Maaroufi K , Achour A , Zakharna A , Ellouz F , el May M , Creppy EE , et al.   Human nephropathy related to ochratoxin A in Tunisia . J Toxicol Toxin Rev . 1996;15:223–237
  172. Baudrimont I , Sostaric B , Yenot C , Betbeder A-M , Dano-Djedje S , Sanni A , et al.   Aspartame prevents the karyomegaly induced by ochratoxin A in rat kidney . Arch Toxicol . 2001;75:176–183
  173. Obrecht-Pfumio S , Gross Y , Pfohl-Leszkowicz A , Dirheimer G . Protection by indomethacin and aspirin against genotoxicity of ochratoxin A, particularly in the urinary bladder and kidney . Arch Toxicol . 1996;70:244–248
  174. Schwartz GG . Hypothesis (does ochratoxin A cause testicular cancer?) . Cancer Causes Control . 2002;13:91–100
  175. Zimmerli B , Dick R . Determination of ochratoxin A at the ppt level in human blood, serum, milk and some foodstuffs by high-performance liquid chromatography with enhanced fluorescence detection and immunoaffinity column cleanup (methodology and Swiss data) . J Chromat B Biomed Appl . 1995;666:85–99
  176. Fukai YC , Hoshino K , Kameyama T , Yasui T , Toda C , Nagiono H . Placental transfer of ochratoxin A and its cytoxic effect on the mouse embryonic brain . Food Chem Toxicol . 1987;60:17–24
  177. Ballinger MB , Phillips TE , Kubena LF . Assessment of the distribution and elimination of ochratoxin A in the pregnant rat . J Food Safety . 1986;8:11–24
  178. Jonsyn FE , Maxwell SM , Hendrickse RG . Human fetal exposure to ochratoxin A and aflatoxins . Ann Trop Paediatr . 1995;15:3–9
  179. Drew RT , Boorman GA , Haseman JK , McConnel EE , Busey WM , Moore JA . The effect of age and exposure duration on cancer induction by a known carcinogen in rats, mice, and hamsters . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol . 1983;68:120–130
  180. Stob M , Baldwin RS , Tuite J , Andrews FN , Gillette KG . Isolation of an anabolic, uterotrophic compound from corn infected with Gibberella zeae . Nature . 1962;196:1318
  181. Mirocha CJ , Pathre SV , Christensen CM . Zearalenone . In:  Rodericks JV ,  Hesseltine CW ,  Mehlman MA editor. Mycotoxins in human and animal health . Park Forest, IL: Pathtox Publishers; 1977;p. 345–364
  182. Gelderblom WCA , Thiel PG , Marasas WFO , Van der Merwe KJ . Natural occurrence of fusarin C, a mutagen produced by Fusarium moniliforme, on corn . J Agric Food Chem . 1984;32:1064–1067
  183. Hesseltine CW . Introduction . In:  Rodericks JV ,  Hesseltine CW ,  Mehlman MA editor. Mycotoxins in human and animal health . Park Forest (IL): Pathtox Publishers; 1977;p. 341–344
  184. Lindsay DG . Zeranol—a “nature-identical” estrogen? . Food Chem Toxicol . 1985;23:767–774
  185. Shipchandler MT . Chemistry of zearalenone and some of its derivatives . Heterocytes . 1975;3:471–520
  186. Bhatnager D , Yu J , Ehrlich KC . Fungal Allergy and Pathogenicity . In:  Breitenbach M ,  Crameri R ,  Lehrer SB editor. Chem Immunol . 81: Basel, Switzerland: Karger; 2002;p. 167–206
  187. Pillay D , Chuturgoon AA , Nevines E , Manickum T , Deppe W , Dutton MF . The quantitative analysis of zearalenone and its derivatives in plasma of patients with breast and cervical cancer . Clin Chem Lab Med . 2002;40:946–951
  188. Kuiper-Goodman T , Scott PM , Watanabe H . Risk assessment of the mycotoxin zearalenone . Regul Toxic Pharmacol . 1987;7:253–306
  189. Saenz de Rodriguez CA . Environmental hormone contamination in Puerto Rico . N Engl J Med . 1984;310:1741–1742
  190. Szuets P , Mesterhazy A , Falkay GY , Bartok T . Early telarche symptoms in children and their relations to zearalenone contamination in foodstuffs . Cereal Res Commun . 1997;25:429–436
  191. Peraica M , Domijan A-M . Contamination of food with mycotoxins and human health . Arh Hig Rada Toksikol . 2001;52:23–35
  192. Lewis WH . Medical botany . New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1977; p. 416–8
  193. Smith JE , Solomons G , Lewis C , Anderson JG . Role of mycotoxins in human and animal nutrition and health . Nat Toxins . 1995;3:187–192
  194. Caballero-Granado FJ , Viciana P , Cordero E , Gomez-Vera MJ , del Nozal M , Lopez-Cortes LF . Ergotism related to concurrent administration of ergotamine tartrate and ritonavir in an AIDS patient . Antimicrob Agents Chemother . 1997;41:1207
  195. Rosenthal E , Sala F , Batt M , Cassuto J-P . Ergotism related to concurrent administration of ergotamine tartrate and indinavir . J Am Med Assoc . 1999;281:987
  196. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) IARC Summary & Evaluation, Patulin. Volume 40, 1986. Available at: http://www.inchem.org/documents/iarc/vol40/patulin.html
  197. Verger P , Garnier-Sagne I , Leblanc J-C . Identification of risk groups for intake of food chemicals . Regul Toxicol Pharmacol . 1999;30:S103–S108
  198. National Research Council . Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children . Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1993;
  199. Hendricks K . Fumonisins and neural tube defects in south Texas . Epidemiology . 1999;10:198–200
  200. Hendricks KA , Simpson JS , Larsen RD . Neural tube defects along the Texas-Mexico border, 1993-1995 . Am J Epidemiol . 1999;149:1119–1127
  201. Missmer S , Hendricks KA , Suarez L , Larsen RD , Rothman KJ . Fumonisins and neural tube defects (preliminary results from the Texas Department of Health) . Epidemiology . 2000;11:183–184
  202. Suarez L , Hendricks KA , Cooper SP , Sweeney AM , Hardy RJ , Larsen RD . Neural tube defects among Mexican Americans living on the US-Mexico border (effects of folic acid and dietary folate) . Am J Epidemiol . 2000;152:1017–1023
  203. Missmer SA , Suarez L , Felkner M , Wang E , Merrill AH , Rothman KJ , et al.   Exposure to fumonisins and the occurrence of neural tube defects along the Texas-Mexico border . Environ Health Perspect . 2006;114:237–241
  204. Stevens VL , Tang J . Fumonisin B1-induced sphyngolipid depletion inhibits vitamin uptake via the glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored folate receptor . J Biol Chem . 1997;272:18020–18025
  205. Moore CA , Li S , Li Z , Hong S , Gu H , Berry RJ , et al.   Elevated rates of severe neural tube defects in a high-prevalence area in northern China . Am J Med Genet . 1997;73:113–118
  206. Ncayiyana DJ . Neural tube defects among rural blacks in a Transkei district . S Afr Med J . 1986;69:618–620
  207. Venter PA , Christiansen AL , Humato CM , Makhura MP , Gericke GS . Congenital anomalies in rural black South African neonates—A silent epidemic . S Afr Med J . 1995;85:15–20
  208. Merrill AH , Sullards MC , Wang E , Voss KA , Riley RT . Sphingolipid metabolism (roles in signal transduction and disruption by fumonisins) . Environ Health Perspect . 2001;109(Suppl 2):283–289

 Parts of this review appeared previously in reference 16 and in Chapter 16, “Mycotoxins and Human Disease” in Microbial Toxins: Molecular and Cellular Biology, edited by Thomas Proft (Norfolk, England: Horizon Bioscience), 2005, pp. 447-472.

PII: S1538-5442(06)00059-9

doi: 10.1016/j.cppeds.2006.05.003

Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care
Volume 36, Issue 8 , Pages 282-305 , September 2006