Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care
Volume 38, Issue 9 , Pages 274-297 , October 2008

Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission of Viral Infections

  • Jennifer S. Read, MD

      Affiliations

    • Pediatric, Adolescent, and Maternal AIDS Branch, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
    • ,
  • Michael J. Cannon, PhD

      Affiliations

    • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA
    • ,
  • Lawrence R. Stanberry, MD, PhD

      Affiliations

    • Department of Pediatrics, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY
    • ,
  • Susan Schuval, MD

      Affiliations

    • Division of Allergy and Immunology, Schneider Children's Hospital, North Shore-Long Island Jewish Health System, Great Neck, NY

References 

  1. McQuillan GM, Kruszon-Moran D. HIV infection in the United States household population aged 18-49 years: results from 1999-2006 (NCHS data brief no 4). Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics; 2008;
  2. Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) (2007 AIDS Epidemic Update). Geneva, Switzerland: UNAIDS, 2008 http://www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/EpiUpdate/EpiUpdArchive/2007/default.asp(accessibility verified July 14, 2008)
  3. Read JS. Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV. In:  Zeichner SL,  Read JS editor. Textbook of Pediatric HIV Care. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 2005;
  4. Cooper ER, Charurat M, Mofenson L, Hanson IC, Pitt J, Diaz C, et al. Combination antiretroviral strategies for the treatment of pregnant HIV-1-infected women and prevention of perinatal HIV-1 transmission. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;29:484–494
  5. Working Group on Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV. Rates of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Africa, America, and Europe: results from 13 perinatal studies. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1995;8:506–510
  6. Kourtis AP, Bulterys M, Nesheim SR, Lee FK. Understanding the timing of HIV transmission from mother to infant. JAMA. 2001;285:709–712
  7. De Cock KM, Fowler MG, Mercier E, de Vincenzi I, Saba J, Hoff E, et al. Prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission in resource-poor countries: translating research into policy and practice. JAMA. 2000;283(9):1175–1182
  8. Contopoulos-Ioannidis DG, Ioannidis JPA. Maternal cell-free viremia in the natural history of perinatal HIV-1 transmission. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1998;18:126–135
  9. Chuachoowong R, Shaffer N, Siriwasin W, Chaisilwattana P, Young NL, Mok PA, et al. Short-course antenatal zidovudine reduces both cervicovaginal human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA levels and risk of perinatal transmission. J Infect Dis. 2000;181:99–106
  10. John GC, Nduati RW, Mbori-Ngacha DA, Richardson BA, Panteleeff D, Mwatha A, et al. Correlates of mother-to-child human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) transmission: association with maternal plasma HIV-1 RNA load, genital HIV-1 DNA shedding, and breast infections. J Infect Dis. 2001;182:206–212
  11. Semba RD, Kumwenda N, Hoover DR, Taha TE, Quinn TC, Mtimavalye L, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus load in breast milk, mastitis, and mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Infect Dis. 1999;180:93–98
  12. Richardson B, Stewart-John GC, Hughes JP, Nduati R, Mbori-Ngacha D, Overbaugh J, et al. Breast-milk infectivity in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected mothers. J Infect Dis. 2003;187:736–740
  13. The International Perinatal HIV Group. Duration of ruptured membranes and vertical transmission of HIV-1: a meta-analysis from fifteen prospective cohort studies. AIDS. 2001;15:357–368
  14. The Breastfeeding and HIV International Transmission Study (BHITS) Group. Late postnatal transmission of HIV-1 in breastfed children: an individual patient data meta-analysis. J Infect Dis. 2004;189:2154–2166
  15. Coutsoudis A, Pillay K, Kuhn L, Spooner E, Tsai WY, Coovadia HM. Method of feeding and transmission of HIV-1 from mothers to children by 15 months of age: prospective cohort study from Durban. South Africa AIDS. 2001;15:379–387
  16. Iliff PJ, Piwoz EG, Tavengwa NV, Iliff PJ, Marinda ET, Zunguza CD, et al. Early exclusive breastfeeding reduces the risk of postnatal HIV-1 transmission and increases HIV-free survival. AIDS. 2005;19:699–708
  17. Van de Perre P, Hitimana DG, Simonon A, Dabis F, Msellati P, Karita P, et al. Postnatal transmission of HIV-1 associated with breast abscess. Lancet. 1992;339:1490–1491
  18. Ekpini ER, Wiktor SZ, Satten GA, Adjorlolo-Johnson GT, Sibailly TS, Ou CY, et al. Late postnatal mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. Lancet. 1997;349:1054–1059
  19. Embree JE, Njenga S, Datta P, Nagelkerke NJ, Ndinya-Achola JO, Mohammed Z, et al. Risk factors for postnatal mother-child transmission of HIV-1. AIDS. 2000;14:2535–2541
  20. American Academy of Pediatrics. Human immunodeficiency virus infection. In:  Pickering LK,  Baker CJ,  Long SS,  McMillan JA editor. Red Book: 2006 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2006;p. 378–401
  21. Read JS, the Committee on Pediatric AIDS. Diagnosis of HIV-1 infection in children younger than 18 months in the United States. Pediatrics. 2007;120(6):e1547–e1562
  22. Patel K, Hernan MA, Williams PL, Seeger JD, McIntosh K, Van Dyke RB, et al. Long-term effectiveness of highly active antiretroviral therapy on the survival of children and adolescents with HIV infection: a 10-year follow-up study. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46:507–515
  23. Connor EM, Sperling RS, Gelber R, Kiselev P, Scott G, O'Sullivan MJ, et al. Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with zidovudine treatment. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:1173–1180
  24. The European Mode of Delivery Collaboration. Elective caesarean section versus vaginal delivery in preventing vertical HIV-1 transmission: a randomised clinical trial. Lancet. 1999;353:1035–1037
  25. Nduati R, John G, Mbori-Ngacha D, Richardson B, Overbaugh J, Mwatha A, et al. Effect of breastfeeding and formula feeding on transmission of HIV-1: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2000;283:1167–1174
  26. Coovadia HM, Rollins NC, Bland RM, Little K, Coutsoudis A, Bennish ML, et al. Mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 infection during exclusive breastfeeding in the first 6 months of life: an intervention cohort study. Lancet. 2007;369:1107–1116
  27. Thior I, Lockman S, Smeaton LM, Shapiro RL, Wester C, Heymann SJ, et al. Breastfeeding plus infant zidovudine prophylaxis for 6 months vs formula feeding plus infant zidovudine for 1 month to reduce mother-to-child HIV transmission in Botswana: a randomized trial: The Mashi Study. JAMA. 2006;296:794–805
  28. Kumwenda NI, Hoover DR, Mofenson LM, Thigpen MC, Kafulafula G, Li Q, et al. Extended antiretroviral prophylaxis to reduce breast-milk HIV-1 transmission. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:119–129
  29. Six Week Extended-Dose Nevirapine (SWEN) Study Team. Extended-dose nevirapine to 6 weeks of age for infants to prevent HIV transmission via breastfeeding in Ethiopia, India, and Uganda: an analysis of three randomised controlled trials. Lancet. 2008;372(9635):300–313
  30. Centers for Disease Control. Recommendations of the U.S (Public Health Service Task Force on the use of zidovudine to reduce perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus). MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1994;43(RR11):1–20
  31. Read JS. Preventing mother-to-child transmission of HIV: the USA experience. Prenat Neonat Med. 1999;4:391–397
  32. DHHS Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents (Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents). www.aidsinfo.nih.gov(accessibility verified July 14, 2008)
  33. Public Health Service Task Force (Recommendations for use of antiretroviral drugs in pregnant HIV-infected women for maternal health and interventions to reduce perinatal HIV transmission in the United States). www.aidsinfo.nih.gov(accessibility verified July 14, 2008)
  34. The International Perinatal HIV Group. The mode of delivery and the risk of vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1: a meta-analysis of 15 prospective cohort studies. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:977–987
  35. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Scheduled cesarean delivery and the prevention of vertical transmission of HIV infection. ACOG Committee Opinion Number 234 Washington, D.C.: ACOG; May 2000;
  36. Dominguez KL, Lindegren ML, D'Almada PJ, Peters VB, Frederick T, Rakusan TA, et al. Increasing trend of cesarean deliveries in HIV-infected women in the United States from 1994 to 2000. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003;33:232–238
  37. Centers for Disease Control. Current recommendations for assisting in the prevention of perinatal transmission of human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1985;34:721–726
  38. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Pediatric AIDS. Human milk, breastfeeding, and transmission of human immunodeficiency virus in the United States. Pediatrics. 1995;96:977–979
  39. Mbori-Ngacha D, Nduati R, John G, Reilly M, Richardson B, Mwatha A, et al. Morbidity and mortality in breastfed and formula-fed infants of HIV-1-infected women: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2001;286:2413–2420
  40. Kuhn L, Aldrovandi GM, Sinkala M, Kankasa C, Semrau K, Mwiya M, et al. Effects of early, abrupt weaning on HIV-free survival of children in Zambia. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:130–141
  41. van der Horst C, Fiscus S, Piwoz E, Corneli A, Moses A, Jones D, et al. Prevention of mother to infant transmission of HIV through breastfeeding and reduction of morbidity and mortality of the breastfeeding mothers: a study in Malawi. Antiviral therapy. 2003;8(Suppl 1):S477
  42. de Vincenzi I and the Kesho Bora Study Group. HIV-free survival at 12 months among children born to HIV-infected women receiving antiretrovirals from 34-36 weeks of pregnancy. Program and Abstracts of the 15th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (February 3-6, 2008; Boston, MA) [abstract 638].
  43. Orloff SL, Wallingford JC, McDougal JS. Inactivation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in human milk: effects of intrinsic factors in human milk and of pasteurization. J Hum Lact. 1993;9:13–17
  44. Jeffery BS, Webber L, Mokhondo KR, Erasmus D. Determination of the effectiveness of inactivation of human immunodeficiency virus by Pretoria pasteurization. J Trop Pediatr. 2001;47:345–349
  45. Israel-Ballard K, Donovan R, Chantry C, Coutsoudis A, Sheppard H, Sibeko L, et al. Flash-heat inactivation of HIV-1 in human milk. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;45:318–323
  46. Tess BH, Rodrigues LC, Newell ML, Dunn DT, Lago TD. Infant feeding and risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Sao Paulo State. Brazil J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1998;19(2):189–194
  47. Safrit JT, Ruprecht R, Ferrantelli F, Xu W, Kitabwalla M, Van Rompay K, et al. Immunoprophylaxis to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2004;35(2):169–177
  48. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2006;55:1–17(N0. RR-14)
  49. Mofenson LM, Munderi P. Safety of antiretroviral prophylaxis of perinatal transmission for HIV-infected pregnant women and their infants. J Acquir Immune Defic Synd Hum Retrovirol. 2002;30:200–215
  50. Ioannidis JP, Abrams EJ, Ammann A, Bulterys M, Goedert JJ, Gray L, et al. Perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by pregnancy women with RNA virus loads <1000 copies/ml. J Infect Dis. 2001;183:539–545
  51. Shaffer N, Roongpisuthipong A, Siriwasin W, Chotpitayasunondh T, Chearskul S, Young NL, et al. Maternal viral load and perinatal HIV-1 subtype E transmission. Thailand J Infect Dis. 1999;179:590–599
  52. European Collaborative Study. Maternal viral load and vertical transmission of HIV-1: an important factor but not the only one. AIDS. 1999;13:1377–1385
  53. European Collaborative Study. Mother-to-child transmission of HIV infection in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40(3):458–465
  54. Townsend CL, Cortina-Borja M, Peckham CS, de Ruiter A, Lyall H, Tookey PA. Low rates of mother-to-child transmission of HIV following effective pregnancy interventions in the United Kingdom and Ireland, 2000-2006. AIDS. 2008;22(8):971–983
  55. Mrus JM, Goldie SJ, Weinstein MC, Tsevat J. The cost-effectiveness of elective Cesarean delivery for HIV-infected women with detectable HIV RNA during pregnancy. AIDS. 2000;14:2543–2552
  56. Jamieson DJ, Read JS, Kourtis AP, Durant TM, Lampe MA, Dominguez KL. Cesarean delivery for HIV-infected women: recommendations and controversies. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;1997(Suppl 3):S96–S100
  57. Read JS. Cesarean section delivery to prevent vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1: associated risks and other considerations. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2000;918:115–121
  58. Read JS. Preventing mother to child transmission of HIV: the role of caesarean section. Sex Transm Infect. 2000;76:231–232
  59. Ippolito G, Puro V, Heptonstall J, Jagger J, De Carli G, Petrosillo N. Occupational human immunodeficiency virus infection in health care workers: worldwide cases through September 1997. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;28:365–383
  60. Ho M. The history of cytomegalovirus and its diseases. Med Microbiol Immunol. 2008;197(2):65–73
  61. Zhong J, Khanna R. Vaccine strategies against human cytomegalovirus infection. Exp Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2007;5(3):449–459
  62. Nigro G, Adler SP, La Torre R, Best AM. Passive immunization during pregnancy for congenital cytomegalovirus infection. N Engl J Med. 2005;353(13):1350–1362
  63. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Perinatal viral and parasitic infections. ACOG Practice Bulletin 20 20 ed.. Washington, DC: ACOG; 2000;
  64. Barbi M, Binda S, Caroppo S, Primache V. Neonatal screening for congenital cytomegalovirus infection and hearing loss. J Clin Virol. 2006;35(2):206–209
  65. Kimberlin DW, Lin CY, Sanchez PJ, Demmler GJ, Dankner W, Shelton M, et al. Effect of ganciclovir therapy on hearing in symptomatic congenital cytomegalovirus disease involving the central nervous system: a randomized, controlled trial. J Pediatr. 2003;143(1):16–25
  66. Fowler KB, Dahle AJ, Boppana SB, Pass RF. Newborn hearing screening: will children with hearing loss caused by congenital cytomegalovirus infection be missed?. J Pediatr. 1999;135(1):60–64
  67. Jeon J, Victor M, Adler SP, Arwady A, Demmler G, Fowler K, et al. Knowledge and awareness of congenital cytomegalovirus among women. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol. 2006;2006:1–7
  68. Ross DS, Victor M, Sumartojo E, Cannon MJ. Women's knowledge of congenital cytomegalovirus: results from the 2005 HealthStyles™ survey. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2008;17(5):849–858
  69. Revello MG, Gerna G. Diagnosis and management of human cytomegalovirus infection in the mother, fetus, and newborn infant. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2002;15(4):680–715
  70. Kenneson A, Cannon MJ. Review and meta-analysis of the epidemiology of congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection. Rev Med Virol. 2007;17(4):253–276
  71. Dollard SC, Grosse SD, Ross DS. New estimates of the prevalence of neurological and sensory sequelae and mortality associated with congenital cytomegalovirus infection. Rev Med Virol. 2007;17(5):355–363
  72. Cannon MJ, Davis KF. Washing our hands of the congenital cytomegalovirus disease epidemic. BMC Public Health. 2005;5(1):70
  73. Stagno S. Cytomegalovirus. In:  Remington JS,  Klein JO editor. Infectious diseases of the fetus and newborn infant. Philadelphia (PA): W.B. Saunders; 2001;p. 389–424
  74. Hamprecht K, Maschmann J, Jahn G, Poets CF, Goelz R. Cytomegalovirus transmission to preterm infants during lactation. J Clin Virol. 2008;41(3):198–205
  75. Pass RF, Hutto C, Ricks R, Cloud GA. Increased rate of cytomegalovirus infection among parents of children attending day-care centers. N Engl J Med. 1986;314(22):1414–1418
  76. Fowler KB, Pass RF. Risk factors for congenital cytomegalovirus infection in the offspring of young women: exposure to young children and recent onset of sexual activity. Pediatrics. 2006;118(2):e286–e292
  77. Staras SA, Flanders WD, Dollard SC, Pass RF, McGowan JE, Cannon MJ. Influence of sexual activity on cytomegalovirus seroprevalence in the United States, 1988-1994. Sex Transm Dis. 2008;35(5):472–479
  78. Staras SAS, Dollard SC, Radford KW, Flanders WD, Pass RF, Cannon MJ. Seroprevalence of cytomegalovirus infection in the United States, 1988-1994. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43:1143–1151
  79. Colugnati FA, Staras SA, Dollard SC, Cannon MJ. Incidence of cytomegalovirus infection among the general population and pregnant women in the United States. BMC Infect Dis. 2007;7:71
  80. Boppana SB, Fowler KB, Britt WJ, Stagno S, Pass RF. Symptomatic congenital cytomegalovirus infection in infants born to mothers with preexisting immunity to cytomegalovirus. Pediatrics. 1999;104(1 Pt. 1):55–60
  81. Boppana SB, Pass RF, Britt WJ, Stagno S, Alford CA. Symptomatic congenital cytomegalovirus infection: neonatal morbidity and mortality. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1992;11(2):93–99
  82. Barbi M, MacKay WG, Binda S, van Loon AM. External quality assessment of cytomegalovirus DNA detection on dried blood spots. BMC Microbiol. 2008;8:2
  83. Boppana SB, Smith RJ, Stagno S, Britt WJ. Evaluation of a microtiter plate fluorescent-antibody assay for rapid detection of human cytomegalovirus infection. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(3):721–723
  84. Kimberlin DW, Acosta EP, Sanchez PJ, Sood S, Agrawal V, Homans J, et al. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic assessment of oral valganciclovir in the treatment of symptomatic congenital cytomegalovirus disease. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(6):836–845
  85. American Academy of Pediatrics. Cytomegalovirus Infection. In:  Pickering LK,  Baker CJ,  Long SS,  McMillan JA editor. Red Book: 2006 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2006;p. 273–276
  86. Smets K, De Coen K, Dhooge I, Standaert L, Laroche S, Mahiew L, et al. Selecting neonates with congenital cytomegalovirus infection for ganciclovir therapy. Eur J Pediatr. 2006;165(12):885–890
  87. Luck S, Sharland M, Griffiths P. Ganciclovir therapy for neonates with congenital cytomegalovirus infection. Eur J Pediatr. 2007;166(6):633–634
  88. Michaels MG. Treatment of congenital cytomegalovirus: where are we now?. Exp Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2007;5(3):441–448
  89. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Knowledge and practices of obstetricians and gynecologists regarding cytomegalovirus infection during pregnancy—United States, 2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2008;57(3):65–68
  90. Istas AS, Demmler GJ, Dobbins JG, Stewart JA. Surveillance for congenital cytomegalovirus disease: a report from the National Congenital Cytomegalovirus Disease Registry. Clin Infect Dis. 1995;20(3):665–670
  91. Sharon B, Schleiss MR. Congenital cytomegalovirus infection: an unrecognized epidemic. Infect Med. 2007;24:402–415
  92. Kemper AR, Uren RL, Moseley KL, Clark SJ. Primary care physicians' attitudes regarding follow-up care for children with positive newborn screening results. Pediatrics. 2006;118(5):1836–1841
  93. Rietmeijer CA. Risk reduction counselling for prevention of sexually transmitted infections: how it works and how to make it work. Sex Transm Infect. 2007;83(1):2–9
  94. Kreuter MW, Chheda SG, Bull FC. How does physician advice influence patient behavior? (Evidence for a priming effect). Arch Fam Med. 2000;9(5):426–433
  95. Ross DS, Dollard SC, Victor M, Sumartojo E, Cannon MJ. The epidemiology and prevention of congenital cytomegalovirus infection and disease: activities of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Workgroup. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2006;15(3):224–229
  96. Morton CC, Nance WE. Newborn hearing screening—a silent revolution. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(20):2151–2164
  97. Adler SP. Congenital cytomegalovirus screening. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2005;24(12):1105–1106
  98. Bailey DB, Armstrong FD, Kemper AR, Skinner D, Warren SF. Supporting family adaptation to presymptomatic and “untreatable” conditions in an era of expanded newborn screening. J Pediatr Psychol. 2008;(in press)
  99. Fowler KB, McCollister FP, Dahle AJ, Boppana S, Britt WJ, Pass RF. Progressive and fluctuating sensorineural hearing loss in children with asymptomatic congenital cytomegalovirus infection. J Pediatr. 1997;130(4):624–630
  100. Rivera LB, Boppana SB, Fowler KB, Britt WJ, Stagno S, Pass RF. Predictors of hearing loss in children with symptomatic congenital cytomegalovirus. Pediatrics. 2002;110(4):762–767
  101. Boppana SB, Fowler KB, Pass RF, Rivera LB, Bradford RD, Lakeman FD, et al. Congenital cytomegalovirus infection: association between virus burden in infancy and hearing loss. J Pediatr. 2005;146(6):817–823
  102. Lanari M, Lazzarotto T, Venturi V, Papa I, Gabrielli L, Guerra B, et al. Neonatal cytomegalovirus blood load and risk of sequelae in symptomatic and asymptomatic congenitally infected newborns. Pediatrics. 2006;117(1):e76–e83
  103. Noyola DE, Demmler GJ, Nelson CT, Griesser C, Williamson WD, Atkins JT, et al. Early predictors of neurodevelopmental outcome in symptomatic congenital cytomegalovirus infection. J Pediatr. 2001;138(3):325–331
  104. Ancora G, Lanari M, Lazzarotto T, Venturi V, Tridapalli E, Sandri F, et al. Cranial ultrasound scanning and prediction of outcome in newborns with congenital cytomegalovirus infection. J Pediatr. 2007;150(2):157–161
  105. Boppana SB, Fowler KB, Vaid Y, Hedlund G, Stagno S, Britt WJ, et al. Neuroradiographic findings in the newborn period and long-term outcome in children with symptomatic congenital cytomegalovirus infection. Pediatrics. 1997;99(3):409–414
  106. Guralnick MJ. Effectiveness of early intervention for vulnerable children: a developmental perspective. Am J Ment Retard. 1998;102(4):319–345
  107. Bailey DB, Skinner D, Davis AM, Whitmarsh I, Powell C. Ethical, legal, and social concerns about expanded newborn screening: fragile X syndrome as a prototype for emerging issues. Pediatrics. 2008;121(3):e693–e704
  108. Yoshinaga-Itano C. Early intervention after universal neonatal hearing screening: impact on outcomes. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2003;9(4):252–266
  109. Walker SP, Chang SM, Powell CA, Grantham-McGregor SM. Effects of early childhood psychosocial stimulation and nutritional supplementation on cognition and education in growth-stunted Jamaican children: prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2005;366(9499):1804–1807
  110. Brown EL, Gardella C, Malm G, Prober CG, Forsgren M, Krantz EM, et al. Effect of maternal herpes simplex virus (HSV) serostatus and HSV type on risk of neonatal herpes. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2007;86:523–529
  111. Handsfield HH, Waldo AB, Brown ZA, Corey L, Drucker JL, Ebel CW, et al. Neonatal herpes should be a reportable disease. Sex Transm Dis. 2005;32:521–525
  112. Whitley RJ. Neonatal herpes simplex virus infections. J Med Virol. 1993;Suppl 1:13–21
  113. Dinh TH, Dunne EF, Markowitz LE, Weinstock H, Berman S. Assessing neonatal herpes reporting in the United States, 2000-2005. Sex Transm Dis. 2008;35:19–21
  114. Xu F, Sternberg MR, Kottiri BJ, McQuillan GM, Lee FK, Nahmias AJ, et al. Trends in herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 seroprevalence in the United States. JAMA. 2006;296:964–973
  115. Brown Z. Preventing herpes simplex virus transmission to the neonate. Herpes. 2004;11(Suppl 3):175A–186A
  116. Brown ZA, Selke S, Zeh J, Kopelman J, Maslow A, Ashley RL, et al. The acquisition of herpes simplex virus during pregnancy. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:509–515
  117. Brown EL, Morrow R, Krantz EM, Arvin AM, Prober CG, Yasukawa LL, et al. Maternal herpes simplex virus antibody avidity and risk of neonatal herpes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2006;195:115–120
  118. Kimberlin DW. Herpes simplex virus infections of the newborn. Semin Perinatol. 2007;31:19–25
  119. Enright AM, Prober CG. Herpesviridae infections in newborns: varicella zoster virus, herpes simplex virus, and cytomegalovirus. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2004;51:889–908
  120. Kimberlin DW, Lin CY, Jacobs RF, Powell DA, Corey L, Gruber WC, et al. Safety and efficacy of high-dose intravenous acyclovir in the management of neonatal herpes simplex virus infections. Pediatrics. 2001;108:230–238
  121. Englund JA, Fletcher CV, Balfour HH. Acyclovir therapy in neonates. J Pediatr. 1991;119:129–135
  122. Brown ZA, Wald A, Morrow RA, Selke S, Zeh J, Corey L. Effect of serologic status and cesarean delivery on transmission rates of herpes simplex virus from mother to infant. JAMA. 2003;289:203–209
  123. Sullivan-Bolyai JZ, Hull HF, Wilson C, Smith AL, Corey L. Presentation of neonatal herpes simplex virus infections: implications for a change in therapeutic strategy. Pediatr Infect Dis. 1986;5:309–314
  124. Stone KM, Brooks CA, Guinan ME, Alexander ER. National surveillance for neonatal herpes simplex virus infections. Sex Transm Dis. 1989;16:152–156
  125. Roberts SW, Cox SM, Dax J, Wendel GD, Leveno KJ. Genital herpes during pregnancy: no lesions, no cesarean. Obstet Gynecol. 1995;85:261–264
  126. Randolph AG, Washington AE, Prober CG. Cesarean delivery for women presenting with genital herpes lesions (Efficacy, risks, and costs). JAMA. 1993;270:77–82
  127. Nilsen AE, Aasen T, Halsos AM, Kinge BR, Tjotta EA, Wikstrom K, et al. Efficacy of oral acyclovir in the treatment of initial and recurrent genital herpes. Lancet. 1982;2:571–573
  128. Reichman RC, Badger GJ, Mertz GJ, Corey L, Richman DD, Connor JD, et al. Treatment of recurrent genital herpes simplex infections with oral acyclovir: a controlled trial. JAMA. 1984;251:2103–2107
  129. Wald A, Zeh J, Barnum G, Davis LG, Corey L. Suppression of subclinical shedding of herpes simplex virus type 2 with acyclovir. Ann Intern Med. 1996;124:8-15
  130. Reitano M, Tyring S, Lang W, Thoming C, Worm AM, Borelli S, et al. Valaciclovir for the suppression of recurrent genital herpes simplex virus infection: a large-scale dose range-finding study (International Valaciclovir HSV Study Group). J Infect Dis. 1998;178:603–610
  131. Diaz-Mitoma F, Sibbald RG, Shafran SD, Boon R, Saltzman RL. Oral famciclovir for the suppression of recurrent genital herpes: a randomized controlled trial (Collaborative Famciclovir Genital Herpes Research Group). JAMA. 1998;280:887–892
  132. Wittek AE, Yeager AS, Au DS, Hensleigh PA. Asymptomatic shedding of herpes simplex virus from the cervix and lesion site during pregnancy. Am J Dis Child. 1984;138:439–442
  133. Simkovich JW, Soper DE. Asymptomatic shedding of herpes virus during labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1988;158:588–589
  134. Yeager AS, Arvin AM. Reasons for the absence of a history of recurrent genital herpes infections in mothers of neonates infected with herpes simplex virus. Pediatrics. 1984;73:188–193
  135. Brown ZA, Benedetti J, Ashley R, Burchett S, Selke S, Berry S, et al. Neonatal herpes simplex virus infection in relation to asymptomatic maternal infection at the time of labor. N Engl J Med. 1991;324:1247–1252
  136. Hollier L, Wendel G. Third trimester antiviral prophylaxis for preventing maternal genital herpes simplex virus (HSV) recurrences and neonatal infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;23:CD004946
  137. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 8. Management of herpes in pregnancy (1999). Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2000;68:165–173
  138. Corey L, Wald A, Patel R, Sacks SL, Tyring SK, Warren T, et al. Once-daily valacyclovir to reduce the risk of transmission of genital herpes. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:11–20
  139. Kinghorn GR. Debate: the argument for (Should all pregnant women be offered type-specific serological screening for HSV infection?). Herpes. 2002;9:46–47
  140. Arvin AM. Debate: the argument against (Should all pregnant women be offered type-specific serological screening for HSV infection?). Herpes. 2002;9:48–50
  141. Urato AC, Caughey AB. Universal prenatal herpes screening is a bad idea in pregnancy. Lancet. 2006;368:898–899
  142. Tita AT, Grobman WA, Rouse DJ. Antenatal herpes serological screening: an appraisal of the evidence. Obstet Gynecol. 2006;108:1247–1253
  143. Robinson JL, Lee BE, Preiksaitis JK, Plitt S, Tipples GA. Prevention of congenital rubella syndrome—what makes sense in 2006?. Epidemiol Rev. 2006;28:81–87
  144. Stanberry L, Cunningham A, Mindel A, Scott L, Spruance S, Aoki F, et al. Prospects for control of herpes simplex virus disease through immunization. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30:549–566
  145. Jones CA, Cunningham AL. Vaccination strategies to prevent genital herpes and neonatal herpes simplex virus (HSV) disease. Herpes. 2004;11:12–17
  146. Stanberry LR, Spruance SL, Cunningham AL, Bernstein DI, Mindel A, Sacks S, et al. Glycoprotein-D-adjuvant vaccine to prevent genital herpes. N Engl J Med. 2002;347:1652–1661
  147. Garnett GP, Dubin G, Slaoui M, Darcis T. The potential epidemiological impact of a genital herpes vaccine for women. Sex Transm Infect. 2004;80:24–29
  148. Bravo FJ, Bourne N, Harrison CJ, Mani C, Stanberry LR, Myers MG, et al. Effect of antibody alone and combined with acyclovir on neonatal herpes simplex virus infection in guinea pigs. J Infect Dis. 1996;173:1–6
  149. Rosenthal SL, Cohen SS, Stanberry LR. Topical microbicides (Current status and research considerations for adolescent girls). Sex Transm Dis. 1998;25:368–377
  150. Keller MJ, Tuyama A, Carlucci MJ, Herold BC. Topical microbicides for the prevention of genital herpes infection. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2005;55:420–423
  151. Rupp R, Rosenthal SL, Stanberry LR. VivaGel™ (SPL7013 Gel): A candidate dendrimer- microbicide for the prevention of HIV and HSV infection. Int J Nanomed. 2007;2:561–566
  152. McMahon BJ. Epidemiology and natural history of hepatitis B. Semin Liver Dis. 2005;25:3–8
  153. Lavanchy D. Hepatitis B virus epidemiology, disease, burden, treatment, and current and emerging prevention and control measures. J Viral Hepat. 2004;11:97–107
  154. Davis AR, Rosenthal P. Hepatitis B in children. Pediatr Rev. 2008;29:111–120
  155. Elisofon SA, Jonas MM. Hepatitis B and C in children: current treatment and future strategies. Clin Liver Dis. 2006;10:133–148
  156. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. A comprehensive immunization strategy to eliminate transmission of hepatitis B virus infection in the United States-recommendations of the ACIP. Part 1: immunization of infants, children, and adolescents. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2005;54:(No. RR-16)
  157. Shepard CW, Simard EP, Finelli L, Fiore AE, Bell BP. Hepatitis B virus infection: epidemiology and vaccination. Epidemiol Rev. 2006;28:112–125
  158. Mahoney FJ. Update on diagnosis, management, and prevention of hepatitis B virus infections. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1999;12:351–366
  159. Tong MJ, Thursby M, Rakela J, McPeak C, Edwards VM, Mosley JW. Studies on the maternal-infant transmission of the viruses which cause acute hepatitis. Gastroenterology. 1981;80:999–1004
  160. Stevens CE, Neurath RA, Beasley RP, Szmuness W. HBeAg and anti-HBe detection with radio-immunoassay: correlation with vertical transmission of hepatitis B virus in Taiwan. J Med Virol. 1979;3:237–241
  161. American Academy of Pediatrics. Hepatitis B. In: Pickering LK, editor. American Academy of Pediatrics Red Book: 2006 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 27th edition. Elk Grove Village, IL: 2006, p. 335-55.
  162. Shneider BL, Gonzalez-Peralta R, Roberts EA. Controversies in the management of pediatric liver disease: Hepatitis B, C, and NAFLD: summary of a single topic conference. Hepatology. 2006;44:1344–1354
  163. Chang MH, Sung JL, Lee CY, Chen CJ, Chen JS, Hsu HY, et al. Factors affecting clearance of hepatitis B e antigen in hepatitis B surface antigen carrier children. J Pediatr. 1989;115:385–390
  164. Bortolotti F, Guido M, Bartolacci S, Cadrobbi P, Crivellaro C, Noventa F, et al. Chronic hepatitis B in children after e antigen seroclearance: final report of a 29-year longitudinal study. Hepatology. 2006;43:556–562
  165. Chen CH, Chen YY, Chen GH, Yang SS, Tang HS, Lin HH, et al. Hepatitis B virus transmission and hepatocarcinogenesis: a 9 year retrospective cohort of 13,676 relatives with hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol. 2004;40:653–659
  166. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. A comprehensive immunization strategy to eliminate transmission of hepatitis B virus infection in the United States-recommendations of the ACIP. Part 2: Immunization of adults. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2006;55:(No. RR-16)
  167. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Surveillance for acute viral hepatitis—United States 2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2008;57:(No. SS-2)
  168. World Health Organization. 2005 Global Immunization Data. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 2006;http://www.who.int/immunization_monitoring/data/GlobalImmunizationData.pdf
  169. Hadzic N. Hepatitis C in pregnancy. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2001;84:F201–F204
  170. Alter MJ, Kruszon-Moran D, Nainan OV, McQuillan GM, Gao F, Moyer LA, et al. The prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in the United States, 1988 through 1994. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:556–562
  171. Davison SM, Mieli-Vergani G, Sira J, Kelly DA. Perinatal hepatitis C virus infection: diagnosis and management. Arch Dis Childhood. 2006;91:781–785
  172. American Academy of Pediatrics. Hepatitis C. In: Pickering LK, editor. American Academy of Pediatrics Red Book: 2006 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 27th edition. Elk Grove Village, IL: 2006. p. 355-9.
  173. Roberts EA, Yeung L. Maternal-infant transmission of hepatitis C virus infection. Hepatology. 2002;36:S106–S113
  174. European Paediatric Hepatitis Virus C Network. Three broad modalities in the natural history of vertically acquired hepatitis C virus infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:45–51
  175. Mast EE, Hwang LY, Seto DSY, Nolte FS, Nainan OV, Wurtzel H, et al. Risk factors for perinatal transmission of hepatitis C virus (HCV) and the natural history of HCV infection acquired in infancy. J Infect Dis. 2005;192:2880–2889
  176. Mok J, Pembrey L, Tovo PA, Newell ML. When does mother to child transmission of hepatitis C virus occur?. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2005;90:F156–F160
  177. Shiraki K, Ohto H, Inaba N, Fujisawa T, Tajiri H, Kanzaki S, et al. Guidelines for care of pregnant women carrying hepatitis C virus and their infants. Pediatr Int. 2008;50:138–140
  178. European Paediatric Hepatitis Virus C Network. A significant sex- but not elective cesarean section-effect on mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis C virus infection. J Infect Dis. 2005;192:1872–1879
  179. Bortolotti F, Resti M, Marcellini M, Giacchino R, Verucchi G, Nebbia G, et al. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotypes in 373 Italian children with HCV infection: changing distribution and correlation with clinical features and outcome. Gut. 2005;54:852–857
  180. Strader DB, Wright T, Thomas DL, Seeff LB. Diagnosis, management, and treatment of hepatitis C. Hepatol. 2004;39:1147–1166
  181. Mohan P, Colvin C, Glymph C, Chandra RR, Kleiner DE, Patel KM, et al. Clinical spectrum and histopathologic features of chronic hepatitis C infection in children. J Pediatr. 2007;150:168–174
  182. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommendations for the prevention and control of hepatitis C virus infection and HCV-related chronic disease. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1998;47:(No. RR-19)

 The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention or the National Institutes of Health.

 The authors have no commercial associations, current and within the past 5 years, that might pose a potential, perceived, or real conflict of interest.

PII: S1538-5442(08)00074-6

doi: 10.1016/j.cppeds.2008.08.001

Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care
Volume 38, Issue 9 , Pages 274-297 , October 2008

Article Tools

* Image Usage & Resolution